Syntax Bhiksu University External Degree

In linguistics, syntax refers to the rules that govern the ways in which words combine to form phrases, clauses, and sentences. It's the concept that enables people to know things like adjectives generally come before the nouns they describe (green chair), how to start a question with a question word (What is that?), that subjects often come before verbs in non-question sentences (She jogged.), prepositional phrases start with prepositions (to the store), helping verbs come before main verbs (can go, will do), and so on.

Key Takeaways: Syntax

• Syntax is the proper order of words in a phrase or sentence.
• Syntax is a tool used in writing proper grammatical sentences.
• Native speakers of a language learn correct syntax without realizing it.
• The complexity of a writer's or speaker's sentences creates a formal or informal level of diction that is presented to its audience. 

For native speakers, using correct syntax is something that comes naturally, as word order is learned as soon as an infant starts absorbing the language. Native speakers can tell something isn't said quite right because it "sounds weird," even if they can't detail the exact grammar rule that makes something sound "off" to the ear. 

"It is syntax that gives the words the power to relate to each other in a sequence...to carry meaning—of whatever kind—as well as glow individually in just the right place," wrote Anthony Burgess in "Enderby Outside" (1968).

The term syntax comes from the Greek, meaning "arrange together." The term is also used to mean the study of the syntactic properties of a language. Syntax is one of the major components of grammar.

In computer contexts, the term refers to the proper ordering of symbols and codes so that the computer can understand what instructions are telling it to do.

Syntactic Rules 

English parts of speech often follow ordering patterns in sentences and clauses, such as compound sentences are joined by conjunctions (and, but, or) or that multiple adjectives modifying the same noun follow a particular order according to their class (such as number-size-color, as in six small green chairs).

Sentences often start with a subject, followed by a predicate (or just a verb in the simplest sentences) and contain an object or a complement (or both), which shows, for example, what's being acted upon. Take the sentence "Beth slowly ran the race in wild, multicolored flip-flops." The sentence follows a subject-verb-object pattern (Beth ran the race). Adverbs and adjectives take their places in front of what they're modifying (slowly ran; wild, multicolored flip-flops). The object (the race) follows the verb, and the prepositional phrase (in wild, multicolored flip-flops) starts with a preposition (in).

The rules of how to order words help the language parts make sense.

Syntax vs. Diction and Formal vs. Informal 

Diction refers to the style of writing or speaking that someone uses, brought about by their choice of words, whereas syntax is the order in which they're arranged in that spoken or written sentence. If something is written using a very high level of diction, it's written very formally, for example, a paper published in an academic journal or a lecture given in a college classroom. Speaking to friends and texting have a low, or informal, level of diction.

Jim Miller emphasized, "It is essential to understand that the differences exist not because spoken language is a degradation of written language but because any written language, whether English or Chinese, results from centuries of development and elaboration by a small number of users." ("An Introduction to English Syntax." Edinburgh University Press, 2002)  

Formal written works or presentations would likely also have more complex sentences and industry-specific jargon, as they are directed to a more narrow audience than something meant to be read or heard by the general public, where the audience members' backgrounds will be more diverse.

Precision in word choice is less exacting in informal contexts than formal ones, and grammar rules are more flexible in spoken language than in formal written language. Understandable English syntax is more flexible than most. 

"[T]he odd thing about English is that no matter how much you screw sequences word up, you understood, still, like Yoda, will be," Douglas Coupland wrote in "Generation A." "Other languages don't work that way. French? Dieu! Misplace a single le or la and an idea vaporizes into a sonic puff. English is flexible: you can jam it into a Cuisinart for an hour, remove it, and meaning will still emerge.” (Random House Canada, 2009)

Types of Syntax (Sentence Structures)

Types of sentences and their syntax modes include simple sentences, compound sentences, complex sentences, and compound-complex sentences. Compound sentences are two simple sentences joined by a conjunction. Complex sentences have dependent clauses, and compound-complex sentences have both types included.

• Simple sentence: The girl ran. Structure: Subject-verb.
• Compound sentence: The girl ran the marathon, and her cousin did, too. Structure: Subject-verb-object-conjunction-subject-verb.
• Complex sentence: Although they were tired after the marathon, the cousins decided to go to a celebration at the park. Structure: Dependent clause-subject-verb-object.
• Compound-complex sentence: Although they weren't fond of crowds, this was different, they decided, because of the common goal that had brought everyone together. Structure: Four clauses, dependent and independent.

Syntax Variations and Distinctions

Syntax has changed some over the development of English through the centuries, noted author Jean Atichison. "The proverb Whoever loved that loved not at first sight? indicates that English negatives could once be placed after main verbs." ("Language Change: Progress or Decay?" 3rd ed. Cambridge University Press, 2001)

And not all people speak English in exactly the same way. Social dialects learned by people with common backgrounds—such as a social class, profession, age group, or ethnic group—also may influence the speakers' syntax. Think of the differences between teenagers' slang and more fluid word order and grammar vs. research scientists' technical vocabulary and manner of speaking to each other. Social dialects are also called social varieties. 

Beyond Syntax

Following proper syntax doesn't guarantee that a sentence will have meaning, though. Linguist Noam Chomsky created the sentence "Colorless green ideas sleep furiously," which is syntactically and grammatically correct because it has the words in the correct order and verbs that agree with subjects, but it's still nonsense. With it, Chomsky showed that rules governing syntax are distinct from meanings that words convey.

The distinction between grammar and syntax has been somewhat disrupted by recent research in lexicogrammar, which takes the words into account in grammar rules: For example, some verbs (transitive ones, that perform an action on something) alwaystake direct objects. A transitive (action) verb example:

• She removed the index card from the old recipe box.

The verb is removed and the object is index card.

Another example, including a transitive phrasal verb:

• Please look over my report before I turn it in.

Syntax

Syntax Exercises

Syntax is the study of phrase and sentence structure.  Sentences are not simply linear strings of words but are phrases, which are linked together in hierarchical structures.  Even though sentences are constructed in specific ways according to each language (language-specific constraints), there are syntactic rules which apply universally to all natural languages.

In syntax we use syntactic trees to demonstrate the rules of a grammar and how these rules combine together to create grammatical phrases and sentences.  These diagrams provide information, not only on the internal structure of phrases, but on the grammatical and semantic relationships between words. Different professors may focus on various aspects of tree structures depending on the amount of class time devoted to the subject and the depth of analysis.  

Most introduction classes do not discuss X bar theory.  Accordingly, the syntax trees are written both in simple structures on the left and X bar structures on the right.

Terms with which you will want to become familiar include:

·         Phrase Structure Rules

·         Complements

·         Verbal Phrases

·         Movement/Transformations

·         Deep structure

·         Ambiguity

·         Constituents

·         Transformational Rules

Wuthering Heights Bhiksu University

“Throughout Wuthering Heights, two distinct yet related obsessions drive Heathcliff's character: his desire for Catherine's love and his need for revenge.” Discuss.

(Please come with relevant extracts from the novel. I hope to discuss the above question during the lecture.)

Catherine, the object of his obsession, becomes the essence of his life, yet, in a sense, he ends up murdering his love. Ironically, after her death, Heathcliff's obsession only intensifies.

Heathcliff's love for Catherine enables him to endure Hindley's maltreatment after Mr. Earnshaw's death. But, after overhearing Catherine admit that she could not marry him, Heathcliff leaves. Nothing is known of his life away from her, but he returns with money. Heathcliff makes an attempt to join the society to which Catherine is drawn. Upon his return, she favors him to Edgar, but still he cannot have her. He is constantly present, lurking around Thrushcross Grange, visiting after hours, and longing to be buried in a connected grave with her so their bodies would disintegrate into one. Ironically, his obsession with revenge seemingly outweighs his obsession with his love, and that is why he does not fully forgive Catherine for marrying Edgar.

After Catherine's death, he must continue his revenge — a revenge that starts as Heathcliff assumes control of Hindley's house and his son — and continues with Heathcliff taking everything that is Edgar's. Although Heathcliff constantly professes his love for Catherine, he has no problem attempting to ruin the life of her daughter. He views an ambiguous world as black and white: a world of haves and have-nots. And for too long, he has been the outsider. That is why he is determined to take everything away from those at Wuthering Heights and Thrushcross Grange who did not accept him. For Heathcliff, revenge is a more powerful emotion than love.

Three years later, Mr. Earnshaw dies, and Hindley inherits Wuthering Heights. He returns with a wife, Frances, and immediately seeks revenge on Heathcliff. Once an orphan, later a pampered and favored son, Heathcliff now finds himself treated as a common laborer, forced to work in the fields. Heathcliff continues his close relationship with Catherine, however. One night they wander to Thrushcross Grange, hoping to tease Edgar and Isabella Linton, the cowardly, snobbish children who live there. Catherine is bitten by a dog and is forced to stay at the Grange to recuperate for five weeks, during which time Mrs. Linton works to make her a proper young lady. By the time Catherine returns, she has become infatuated with Edgar, and her relationship with Heathcliff grows more complicated. When Frances dies after giving birth to a baby boy named Hareton, Hindley descends into the depths of alcoholism, and behaves even more cruelly and abusively toward Heathcliff. Eventually, Catherine’s desire for social advancement prompts her to become engaged to Edgar Linton, despite her overpowering love for Heathcliff. Heathcliff runs away from Wuthering Heights, staying away for three years, and returning shortly after Catherine and Edgar’s marriage.

When Heathcliff returns, he immediately sets about seeking revenge on all who have wronged him. Having come into a vast and mysterious wealth, he deviously lends money to the drunken Hindley, knowing that Hindley will increase his debts and fall into deeper despondency. When Hindley dies, Heathcliff inherits the manor. He also places himself in line to inherit Thrushcross Grange by marrying Isabella Linton, whom he treats very cruelly. Catherine becomes ill, gives birth to a daughter, and dies. Heathcliff begs her spirit to remain on Earth—she may take whatever form she will, she may haunt him, drive him mad—just as long as she does not leave him alone. Shortly thereafter, Isabella flees to London and gives birth to Heathcliff’s son, named Linton after her family. She keeps the boy with her there.

Catherine and Heathcliff’s passion for one another seems to be the center of Wuthering Heights, given that it is stronger and more lasting than any other emotion displayed in the novel, and that it is the source of most of the major conflicts that structure the novel’s plot. As she tells Catherine and Heathcliff’s story, Nelly criticizes both of them harshly, condemning their passion as immoral, but this passion is obviously one of the most compelling and memorable aspects of the book. It is not easy to decide whether Brontë intends the reader to condemn these lovers as blameworthy or to idealize them as romantic heroes whose love transcends social norms and conventional morality. The book is actually structured around two parallel love stories, the first half of the novel centering on the love between Catherine and Heathcliff, while the less dramatic second half features the developing love between young Catherine and Hareton. In contrast to the first, the latter tale ends happily, restoring peace and order to Wuthering Heights and Thrushcross Grange. The differences between the two love stories contribute to the reader’s understanding of why each ends the way it does.

The most important feature of young Catherine and Hareton’s love story is that it involves growth and change. Early in the novel Hareton seems irredeemably brutal, savage, and illiterate, but over time he becomes a loyal friend to young Catherine and learns to read. When young Catherine first meets Hareton he seems completely alien to her world, yet her attitude also evolves from contempt to love. Catherine and Heathcliff’s love, on the other hand, is rooted in their childhood and is marked by the refusal to change. In choosing to marry Edgar, Catherine seeks a more genteel life, but she refuses to adapt to her role as wife, either by sacrificing Heathcliff or embracing Edgar. In Chapter XII she suggests to Nelly that the years since she was twelve years old and her father died have been like a blank to her, and she longs to return to the moors of her childhood. Heathcliff, for his part, possesses a seemingly superhuman ability to maintain the same attitude and to nurse the same grudges over many years.

Moreover, Catherine and Heathcliff’s love is based on their shared perception that they are identical. Catherine declares, famously, “I am Heathcliff,” while Heathcliff, upon Catherine’s death, wails that he cannot live without his “soul,” meaning Catherine. Their love denies difference, and is strangely asexual. The two do not kiss in dark corners or arrange secret trysts, as adulterers do. Given that Catherine and Heathcliff’s love is based upon their refusal to change over time or embrace difference in others, it is fitting that the disastrous problems of their generation are overcome not by some climactic reversal, but simply by the inexorable passage of time, and the rise of a new and distinct generation. Ultimately, Wuthering Heights presents a vision of life as a process of change, and celebrates this process over and against the romantic intensity of its principal characters.

The Precariousness of Social Class

As members of the gentry, the Earnshaws and the Lintons occupy a somewhat precarious place within the hierarchy of late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century British society. At the top of British society was the royalty, followed by the aristocracy, then by the gentry, and then by the lower classes, who made up the vast majority of the population. Although the gentry, or upper middle class, possessed servants and often large estates, they held a nonetheless fragile social position. The social status of aristocrats was a formal and settled matter, because aristocrats had official titles. Members of the gentry, however, held no titles, and their status was thus subject to change. A man might see himself as a gentleman but find, to his embarrassment, that his neighbors did not share this view. A discussion of whether or not a man was really a gentleman would consider such questions as how much land he owned, how many tenants and servants he had, how he spoke, whether he kept horses and a carriage, and whether his money came from land or “trade”—gentlemen scorned banking and commercial activities.

Considerations of class status often crucially inform the characters’ motivations in Wuthering Heights. Catherine’s decision to marry Edgar so that she will be “the greatest woman of the neighborhood” is only the most obvious example. The Lintons are relatively firm in their gentry status but nonetheless take great pains to prove this status through their behaviors. The Earnshaws, on the other hand, rest on much shakier ground socially. They do not have a carriage, they have less land, and their house, as Lockwood remarks with great puzzlement, resembles that of a “homely, northern farmer” and not that of a gentleman. The shifting nature of social status is demonstrated most strikingly in Heathcliff’s trajectory from homeless waif to young gentleman-by-adoption to common laborer to gentleman again (although the status-conscious Lockwood remarks that Heathcliff is only a gentleman in “dress and manners”).

years later, Catherine meets Heathcliff on the moors, and makes a visit to Wuthering Heights to meet Linton. She and Linton begin a secret romance conducted entirely through letters. When Nelly destroys Catherine’s collection of letters, the girl begins sneaking out at night to spend time with her frail young lover, who asks her to come back and nurse him back to health. However, it quickly becomes apparent that Linton is pursuing Catherine only because Heathcliff is forcing him to; Heathcliff hopes that if Catherine marries Linton, his legal claim upon Thrushcross Grange—and his revenge upon Edgar Linton—will be complete. One day, as Edgar Linton grows ill and nears death, Heathcliff lures Nelly and Catherine back to Wuthering Heights, and holds them prisoner until Catherine marries Linton. Soon after the marriage, Edgar dies, and his death is quickly followed by the death of the sickly Linton. Heathcliff now controls both Wuthering Heights and Thrushcross Grange. He forces Catherine to live at Wuthering Heights and act as a common servant, while he rents Thrushcross Grange to Lockwood.

Nelly’s story ends as she reaches the present. Lockwood, appalled, ends his tenancy at Thrushcross Grange and returns to London. However, six months later, he pays a visit to Nelly, and learns of further developments in the story. Although Catherine originally mocked Hareton’s ignorance and illiteracy (in an act of retribution, Heathcliff ended Hareton’s education after Hindley died), Catherine grows to love Hareton as they live together at Wuthering Heights. Heathcliff becomes more and more obsessed with the memory of the elder Catherine, to the extent that he begins speaking to her ghost. Everything he sees reminds him of her. Shortly after a night spent walking on the moors, Heathcliff dies. Hareton and young Catherine inherit Wuthering Heights and Thrushcross Grange, and they plan to be married on the next New Year’s Day. After hearing the end of the story, Lockwood goes to visit the graves of Catherine and Heathcliff.

Heathcliff is a very dark and stormy character of Gypsy blood and is 
the person who has the greatest association with Wuthering Heights. Mr 
Earnshaw who found him alone and starving introduced him to the place 
as a child where he grew up with Catherine and Hindley as an 
interloper. In adulthood he becomes more and more antisocial and puts 
up a stone barrier when it comes to showing his emotions. He and the 
building suit each other as though they were one and the same because 
whilst he displays all the strength and pride of the Heights, he also 
has the roughness. 

Isabella is Edgar Linton's sister and although being a pleasant, 
well-educated person has the soft and civilized traits of Thrushcross 
Grange. Heathcliff marries her as a way of revenge against Cathy and 
Edgar and as a part of his overall plan to own both estates. Not 
realising Heathcliffs intentions she is taken in by his magnetism and 
strength but is too soft a character to stand up to his might and