Discourse analysis is sometimes defined as the
analysis of language 'beyond the sentence'. This contrasts with types of
analysis more typical of modern linguistics, which are chiefly concerned with
the study of grammar: the study of smaller bits of language, such assounds
(phonetics and phonology), parts of words (morphology), meaning (semantics),
and the order of words in sentences (syntax).
Some
discourse analysts consider the larger discourse context in order to understand
how it affects the meaning of the sentence. For example, Charles Fillmore
points out that two sentences taken together as a single discourse can have
meanings different from each one taken separately. To illustrate, he asks you
to imagine two independent signs at a swimming pool: "Please use the
toilet, not the pool," says one. The other announces, "Pool for
members only." If you regard each sign independently, they seem quite
reasonable. But taking them together as a single discourse makes you go back
and revise your interpretation of the first sentence after you've read the
second.
Discourse and Frames
'Reframing' is a way to talk about going back
and re-interpreting the meaning of the first sentence. Frame analysis is a type
of discourse analysis that asks, What activities are speakers engaged in when
they say this? What do they think they are doing by talking in this way at this
time? Consider how hard it is to make sense of what you are hearing or reading
if you don't know who's talking or what the general topic is. When you read a
newspaper, you need to know whether you are reading a news story, an editorial,
or an advertisement in order to properly interpret the text you are reading.
Years ago, when Orson Welles' radio play "The War of the Worlds" was
broadcast, some listeners who tuned in late panicked, thinking they were
hearing the actual end of the world. They mistook the frame for news instead of
drama.
Turn-taking
Conversation
is an enterprise in which one person speaks, and another listens. Discourse
analysts who study conversation note that speakers have systems for determining
when one person's turn is over and the next person's turn begins. This exchange
of turns or 'floors' is signaled by such linguistic means as intonation,
pausing, and phrasing. Some people await a clear pause before beginning to
speak, but others assume that 'winding down' is an invitation to someone else
to take the floor. When speakers have different assumptions about how turn exchanges
are signaled, they may inadvertently interrupt or feel interrupted. On the
other hand, speakers also frequently take the floor even though they know the
other speaker has not invited them to do so.
Listenership
too may be signaled in different ways. Some people expect frequent nodding as
well as listener feedback such as 'mhm', 'uhuh', and 'yeah'. Less of this than
you expect can create the impression that someone is not listening; more than
you expect can give the impression that you are being rushed along. For some,
eye contact is expected nearly continually; for others, it should only be
intermittent. The type of listener response you get can change how you speak:
If someone seems uninterested or uncomprehending (whether or not they truly
are), you may slow down, repeat, or over explain, giving the impression you are
'talking down.' Frederick Erickson has shown that this can occur in
conversations between black and white speakers, because of different habits
with regard to showing listenership.
Discourse Markers
'Discourse
markers' is the term linguists give to the little words like 'well', 'oh',
'but', and 'and' that break our speech up into parts and show the relation
between parts. 'Oh' prepares the hearer for a surprising or just-remembered
item, and 'but' indicates that sentence to follow is in opposition to the one
before. However, these markers don't necessarily mean what the dictionary says
they mean. Some people use 'and' just to start a new thought, and some people
put 'but' at the end of their sentences, as a way of trailing off gently.
Realizing that these words can function as discourse markers is important to
prevent the frustration that can be experienced if you expect every word to
have its dictionary meaning every time it's used.
Speech Acts
Speech
act analysis asks not what form the utterance takes but what it does. Saying
"I now pronounce you man and wife" enacts a marriage. Studying speech
acts such as complimenting allows discourse analysts to ask what counts as a
compliment, who gives compliments to whom, and what other function they can
serve. For example, linguists have observed that women are more likely both to
give compliments and to get them. There are also cultural differences; in
India, politeness requires that if someone compliments one of your possessions,
you should offer to give the item as a gift, so complimenting can be a way of
asking for things. An Indian woman who had just met her son's American wife was
shocked to hear her new daughter-in-law praise her beautiful saris. She
commented, "What kind of girl did he marry? She wants everything!" By
comparing how people in different cultures use language, discourse analysts
hope to make a contribution to improving cross-cultural understanding.
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