Transformational Generative Grammar-03 Year Students of Bhiksu University, Anuradhapura

1.  Transformational Grammar/Transformational-Generative Grammar.

2.  A sentence can be written in many ways. It can be written as a statement, question or in negative form.

3.  You can generate many sentences from one single sentence as discussed below.

4.  Introduced by Noam Chomsky

·        Tenses

·        Questions

·        Person

·         First Person/Second Person/Third Person

·        I go. /He goes.

·        Singular/Plural

·        We play.

·        He plays.

Present	Past	Future
He writes a letter.	He wrote a letter.	He will write a letter.
Does he write a letter?
He does not write a letter.
Doesn’t he write a letter?

Simple Present: He comes.

Present Continuous: He is coming.

Present Perfect: He has come.

Present Perfect Continuous: He has been coming.

Active Voice	Passive Voice
He writes a letter.	A letter is written by him.
He wrote a letter-.	A letter was written by him.

Mala prepare dinner (Deep Structure)

----------------------------- (Surface Structure)

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-----------------------------

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Transformational grammar relates the active sentence “John read the book” with its corresponding passive, “The book was read by John.” The statement “George saw Mary” is related to the corresponding questions, “Whom [or who] did George see?” and “Who saw Mary?” Although sets such as these active and passive sentences appear to be very different on the surface (i.e., in such things as word order), a transformational grammar tries to show that in the “underlying structure” (i.e., in their deeper relations to one another), the sentences are very similar. Transformational grammar assigns a “deep structure” and a “surface structure” to show the relationship of such sentences. Thus, “I know a man who flies planes” can be considered the surface form of a deep structure approximately like “I know a man. The man flies airplanes.” The notion of deep structure can be especially helpful in explaining ambiguous utterances; e.g., “Flying airplanes can be dangerous” may have a deep structure, or meaning, like “Airplanes can be dangerous when they fly” or “To fly air planes can be dangerous.”

The most widely discussed theory of transformational grammar was proposed by U.S. linguist Noam Chomsky in 1957. 

Bhiksu University -First Year Students-(Internal) -Conjunctions

and

1.  Kamal and Nimal went to the temple.

2.  He ate bread and butter.

3.  I went home. I had lunch.

4.  I went home and had lunch.

or

1.  You can learn Pali. You can learn Sanskrit.

2.  You can learn Pali or Sanskrit.

3.  Ravi will help you. Roshan will help you.

4.  Ravi or Roshan will help you.

but/yet/still/however/nonetheless/  nevertheless

1.  I have a bike. I can’t ride it.

2.  I have a bike, but I can’t ride it.

so/therefore/hence/for this reason/as a result/consequently/that is why

1.  Kamani is ill. She is absent.

2.  Kamani is ill, so she is absent.

because/since/as/now that/for

Kamani is ill. She is absent.

1.          Kamani is absent because she is ill.

Bhiksu University of Sri Lanka - Anuradhapura-Scandinavian Influence on Old English

 Introduction

The history of English language is usually divided up into four major periods that can be justified both on the basis of linguistic differences and on the basis of historical events that influenced the later development of English language [1]. These periods are Old English (450-1150), Middle English (1150-1500), Early Modern English (1500-1700) and Modern English (1700-present). These years are not strict boundaries but rough approximations.

English has been influenced by many languages and one of them is Scandinavian (in the period of OE and ME). Scandinavian loans differ from other loans from the same period because they refer to common, everyday events and objects. Because of its extent, it is one of the most interesting of the foreign influences on the English language.

Historical background

The Viking Age lasted roughly from the middle of the eighth century to the beginning of the eleventh. The Vikings were the Germanic tribes of the Scandinavian Peninsula and Denmark. Vikings conquered large areas of England.

Scandinavians intermarried with the English, adopted many of their customs and accepted Christianity.

Scandinavian place-names

Many places in today England bear Scandinavian names (more than 1,400). These names are notable evidence that the Vikings once settled in England. These places are mostly situated in the district of the Danelaw. According to Baugh and Cable (98-99), there are more than 600 places with names ending in -by (such as Whitby, Grimsby). The Scandinavian word by means 'farm' or 'town'; the word can also be seen in by-law (town law). Some 300 place-names end in the Scandinavian word thorp that means 'village' (like Althorp, Bishopsthorpe, Linthorpe). There are almost as much place-names that contain the word thwaite, 'an isolated piece of land' (e.g. Applethwaite, Langthwaite). Around a hundred end in toft, 'a piece of ground, a messuage' (Brimtoft, Nortoft).

Even personal names bear witness to the Scandinavian influence. Names with the suffix -son like Stevenson or Johnson are the Scandinavian equivalent of OE patronymic -ing (as in Browning).

Borrowed words

As previously stated, Old English and Old Norse were similar languages; some common words of the two languages were even identical. Therefore, in some cases, it is difficult to determine whether a word in Modern English is native or a borrowed word. So, for example, native words like ship and fish have sh in Modern English, whereas words borrowed from Scandinavian are still pronounced with sk: sky, skin, skill, scrape, whisk. An interesting example is that of the OE word scyrte that became skirt in Modern English, whereas the corresponding ON form skyrta became skirt.

Scandinavian loanwords

Although the Scandinavian loan words began to enter the English language probably at the same time when the Vikings settled down (the period of Old English), the evidence in writing can be found mostly in Middle English texts. The loanwords were recorded long after they came in use because it took some time before they entered the Standard English. Baugh and Cable divided the early loanwords (in OE) into two groups. The first group constitutes words "associated with sea-roving and predatory people" (99). The second group is made out of "words relating to the law or characteristic of the social and administrative system of Danelaw" (99). After the Norman Conquest, most of the words from the second group were replaced by the French terms and thus can no longer be found in Modern English.

It was only after the Danes had begun to settle down that Scandinavian words started to enter in greater numbers into language. We cannot divide these words into different domains of thought or experience because Scandinavian loanwords are varied and simple (as opposed to the French or Latin loanwords). They include common, familiar, everyday words. The following list serves only illustrative purposes and is not in any way exhaustive, as there are around 900 Scandinavian words in Modern English.

NOUNS

axle-tree/band/bank/birth/boon/booth/brink/bull/calf (of leg)/crook/dirt/down (feathers)/dregs/egg/fellow/gap/girth/guess/hap/husband/kid/law/leg//link/loan/re/race/reef/reindeer/root/scales/score/scrap/seat/sister/skill/skin/skirt/sky/  slaughter/snare/stack/steak/thrift/trust/want/window

ADJECTIVES

Awkward/flat/ill/loose/low/odd/rotten/rugged/scant/sly/tattered/tight/weak/

VERBS

Bait/bask/clip/cow/crave/crawl/die/egg/get/give/hit/kindle/lift/raise/rake/screech/take/thrive/thrust

As already mentioned, these words are very common and of everyday use. There probably existed words for the same concepts in OE, so the new words could have supplied no real need in the English vocabulary. However, these words made their way into the English as the result of the mixture of two peoples. Scandinavian loanwords are very interesting because they refer to ordinary things and they retained in the language.

Some more examples are burn, drag, fast, hang, scrape and thick. If there were differences in form, the English word often survived. Some examples are bench, goat, heathen, yarn, few, grey, loath, leap, flay.

Sometimes, both the English and Scandinavian words survived with a difference of meaning or use (the English word is given first): no-nay, whole-hale, rear-raise, from-fro, craft-skill, hide-skin, sick-ill. (5) Some native words that were not in common use were reinforced or reintroduced from the Scandinavian. Examples are till, dale, rim, blend and run.

Form (grammatical) words

Scandinavian words that made their way into English were not only open class words (nouns, adjectives and verbs). The Scandinavian influence extended to grammatical words - pronouns, prepositions, adverbs, and even a part of the verb to be.

Conclusion

As we have seen, even today, after so many years, we can still see the evidence of Scandinavian influence on English. There are thousands of place-names of Scandinavian origin. Many common and everyday words have Scandinavian origin. We cannot even imagine the English vocabulary without them. What is even more fascinating is that Scandinavian left an imprint on grammatical words and possibly syntax, which is a rare case when it comes to borrowing. It can be concluded that Scandinavian has had significant impact on the development of the English vocabulary.

Narrative Technique

In this lesson, we will examine various types of narrative techniques in writing, as well as examples of the literary techniques relevant to style, plot, and perspective/point of view.

Definition of Narrative Technique

Narratives are works that provide an account of connected events. To put it simply, a narrative is a story. There are many types of literature that are considered narratives, including novels, dramas, fables, folk tales, short stories, and poetry. In addition to literature, narratives are found in cinema, music, and theatre.

Narrative techniques provide deeper meaning for the reader and help the reader use imagination to visualize situations. Narrative literary techniques are also known as literary devices. Before we look too closely at narrative techniques, it's important to understand that literary elements in narratives include such things as the setting, plot, theme, style or structure, characters, and perspective, or voice of the story, since literary techniques are best understood in the context of one of these elements.

Types of Narrative Techniques

There are many literary techniques, but for this lesson, we will examine literary techniques relevant to style, plot, and narrative perspective, or point of view. Common techniques relevant to style, or the language chosen to tell a story, include metaphors, similes, personification, imagery, hyperbole, and alliteration.

Common techniques relevant to plot, which is the sequence of events, that make up a narrative, include backstory, flashback, flash-forward, and foreshadowing. Common techniques relevant to narrative perspective, or who is telling the story, include first person, second person, third person, and third-person omniscient.

Examples of Narrative Techniques in Style

The style a writer uses is seen in the diction, or the language used. Figurative language is a common element in narrative writing.

Metaphors and similes are expressions used to compare two things in an effort to help the reader have a better understanding of what the writer is attempting to convey. The difference between a simile and a metaphor is the simile uses words like 'as' or 'than' in the comparison, while the metaphor does not utilize these words.

Consider the metaphor: 'It's raining men.' Obviously, this does not mean it is literally raining men, since that is impossible. It simply means that there are a lot of men present. Here you can see an example of a simile: 'It was raining like cats and dogs.' Again, this does not literally mean cats and dogs are coming from the sky; that is impossible. This is an expression that helps the reader understand the rain is very powerful and forceful.

Imagery creates visuals for the reader that appeal to our senses and usually involves figurative language: 'The bar was a dark, gloomy eyesore.' This statement appeals to our senses to help us visualize and feel the negative aspects of this location.

Personification is seen when an inanimate object is given human or animal-like qualities, like: 'The stars danced in the sky.' We know stars cannot dance. This statement is an attempt to help the reader have a better picture of how the stars appeared to move in a dancing fashion.

Hyperbole is an over-exaggeration to make a point. You might have heard someone say: 'My purse weighs a ton.' We know this is not meant to be in the literal sense but is meant to help the reader understand the excessive weight of the purse.

Alliteration is seen when the writer uses the same letters together in a sentence. Here is a classic example: 'Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.' Some writers use alliteration to help readers remember phrases or concepts, while some writers simply use this technique because it is 'catchy' and appealing to readers.

Examples of Narrative Techniques in Plot

When we think of the common techniques relevant to the plots, we think of a certain sequence of events. To present the events, writers use backstory, flashback, flash-forward, and foreshadowing.

Backstory is used when the author feels it is important for the reader to know something that has happened prior to the actual events described in the narrative. For example, in the story of Cinderella, we learn that Cinderella's father has lost his wife and married another woman who has two other daughters. This is important for us to understand why Cinderella is treated so differently from the other daughters. We don't actually experience this event in the story. Instead, the narrator gives us this 'backstory' just before the actual first event that we do experience.

Flashback is used when the narrator or the main character takes the story back in time, and the events go back and forth between the past and the present. Two examples of this include the narratives from The Notebook and Forrest Gump. The narrators often jumped back and forth between several events that occurred in the past to the present.

GCE (AL) English Literature-2018-2019-2020

What motives inspired Iago to plot revenge against Othello?

From the start of Shakespeare's Othello, Iago makes it very clear that he holds no love for the title character. In his opening argument with Roderigo, Iago says that his anger stems from the fact that Othello unfairly passes him over for promotion and makes Michael Cassio his lieutenant, even though Cassio, unlike Iago, has no military field experience.

Although this is a good reason to be angry with Othello, Iago later reveals to the audience what he doesn't reveal to Roderigo. In a soliloquy at the end of Act I, Scene 3, Iago divulges perhaps the true nature of his hatred toward Othello:

"I hate the Moor…”

“He has done my office…”

It appears that there are rumors that Othello has slept with Iago's wife, Emilia. Here, Iago says to himself, when no other characters are able to hear, that he doesn't care whether the rumors are true; he's going to proceed as if they are indubitably true.

Throughout the play, Iago's soliloquies disclose to the audience what he does not reveal to the other characters as his plans take shape. At the end of Act II, Scene 1, he reiterates the real motivation behind his plots against Othello:

“I do suspect the lusty Moor…”

But, underlying all of Iago's excuses and justifications is a deep-seated racism, which is apparent just by looking at how he refers to Othello. When he isn't, in private, calling Othello a "Barbary horse," an "old black ram," or an "erring barbarian," he usually refers to him in public simply as "the Moor," identifying Othello not as an individual or even by his rank, but by his race. In today's terms, this would be like calling someone "the Jew" or "the Arab" all the time.

Such blatant racism wouldn't have been as shocking or disturbing to Shakespeare's audience, but modern performances of this great tragedy cannot avoid calling attention to the implications of Iago's prejudice.

Pragmatics-Bhiksu University- Second Year Students (Internal)

·        Pragmatics is a subfield of linguistics. 

·        Beyond sentence level.

·        Intended meaning/speaker meaning

·        Linguistic meaning

·        Ravi is a nice boy. (Linguistic meaning)

·        Ravi is a nice boy. (Intended meaning/speaker meaning) Ravi is not a nice boy. You know with your own experience he is bad.

"You have a green light.”

How is the canteen? It is excellent.”

Linguistic Meaning

It is a very good canteen. The servants are very kind and helpful. It is very clean. Food is fresh and delicious.

Intended meaning/speaker meaning

Opposite of the above. It is very bad canteen. It is not clean. The servants are very bad. Food is not tasty.